“The scope of people’s ignorance is often invisible to them. This meta-ignorance (or ignorance of ignorance) arises because lack of expertise and knowledge often hides in the realm of the “unknown unknowns” or is disguised by erroneous beliefs and background knowledge that only appear to be sufficient to conclude a right answer.” — David Dunning ¹

“Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it is those who know little, not those who know much, who so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science.” — Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man

愛己乃非善之最也。無法修業、事業無成、朱能改過、甚而伐功矜能，皆起於愛己之念，故切不可愛己也。 —《南洲翁遺訓》

無知者急於炫耀所知；謙虛者深知所不知。

People who know the least seem to be the most confident in their knowledge.

Facts

• We don’t know what we don’t know.
• We frequently overestimate our own abilities.
• We’re not good at evaluating ourselves accurately.

Actions

Be humble

滿招損，謙受益。

There are many people of questionable intelligence who believe they are mentally superior to the majority.

• 虛懷若谷
• 驕矜自滿 → 謙沖自牧
• 誇獎的話，出於自己口中，是多麽地乏味！

以退為進

不自見故明，不自是故彰，不自伐故有功，不自矜故長。 —《老子道德經》第二十二章

不自我炫耀、不堅持己見，反而能看清事物的真相。不自以為是、不盲目主觀，反而能彰顯出是非對錯。不自我誇耀功勞，功勞反而能得到大眾的認可。不驕傲自負，聲望與德行反而能長久維持。